Zoology, Science and the Scientific Method (Chap. 1)
I. Zoology
II. Science
III. Scientific Method
A. The process: the hypothetico-deductive method
B. Example: Peppered moth of England.
IV. Creationism science (intelligent design)
Survey of Major Animal Taxa
I. Protista (animal-like unicellular organisms)
A. Phylum Sarcomastigophora
1. Subphylum Mastigophora
2. Subphylum Sarcodina
B. Phylum Apicomplexa
C. Phylum Ciliophora
II. Metazoa (multicellular animals)
A. Phylum Porifera
B. Phylum Cnidaria
1. Class Hydrozoa
2. Class Scyphozoa
3. Class Anthozoa
C. Phylum Platyhelminthes
1. Class Turbellaria
2. Class Trematoda
3. Class Cestoda
D. Phylum Nematoda
E. Phylum Mollusca
1. Class Gastropoda
2. Class Bivalvia
3. Class Cephalopoda
F. Phylum Annelida
1. Class Polychaeta
2. Class Oligochaeta
3. Class Hirudinea
G. Phylum Arthropoda
1. Subphylum Chelicerata
a. Class Merostomata
b. Class Arachnida
2. Subphylum Crustacea
3. Subphylum Uniramia
a. Class Chilopoda
b. Class Diplopoda
c. Class Insecta
H. Phylum Echinodermata
1. Class Asteroidea
2. Class Ophiuroidea
3. Class Echinoidea
4. Class Holothuroidea
5. Class Crinoidea
I. Phylum Chordata
1. Subphylum Vertebrata
a. Class Agnatha
b. Class Chondrichthyes
c. Class Osteichthyes
d. Class Amphibia
e. Class Reptilia
f. Class Aves
g. Class Mammalia
Evolution (Chap. 6)
I. Introduction
II. Evidence for Evolutionary Change
A. Fossils
B. Homologies
1. anatomical: ex: forelimb of vertebrates (p. 111)
ex: mouthparts of insects (p. 416)
ex: vestigial organs
2. embryological (p. 168)
3. biochemical
III. Evolution and Genetics: Neo-Darwinism and the synthetic theory.
A. Definition of Evolution
B. Levels of evolutionary change:
1. Microevolution
2. Macroevolution
IV. Microevolution
A. The Gene Pool
1. sources of genetic variability
2. genetic equilibrium
B. Factors that change allelic frequencies (disturb genetic equilibrium)
1. Natural selection
a. The argument:
b. Example: loop of Henle
c. Types of evolutionary responses to natural selection
d. Characteristics of Natural Selection:
2. Genetic Drift
a. bottleneck effect
b. founder effect
3. Nonrandom Mating
4. Migration
5. Interaction of Natural Selection, Genetic Drift and Migration
C. Speciation
1. definition of species
2. reproductive barriers
a. premating barriers
b. postmating barriers
3. types of speciation
a. allopatric speciation
-- vicariant speciation
-- founder event
b. sympatric speciation
4. adaptive radiation
V. Macroevolution
A. species selection
B. mass extinctions
VI. Rate and Patterns of Evolutionary Change (of speciation)
A. Gradualism
B. Punctuated Equilibrium
Developmental Patterns and Body Plans
(Chap. 8, pp. 156-163; Chap. 9 pp. 179-184)
I. Levels of Organization
A. Protoplasmic grade
B. Cellular grade
C. Tissue grade
1. primary tissue (germ) layers
2. tissue types
D. Organ grade
E. Organ system grade
II. Symmetry
A. Radial
B. Bilateral
III. Early Embryological Development
A. Cleavage Patterns
1. no distinct pattern
2. spiral cleavage
3. radial cleavage
B. Developmental fate of early blastomeres
1. mosaic (determinate) development
2. regulative (indeterminate) development
C. Formation of Germ Layers, Body Openings and Gut
1. Germ layers
a. ectoderm and endoderm
b. origins of mesoderm
2. Body Openings and Gut
a. incomplete gut: one body opening
b. complete gut: two body openings
-- Protostomes
-- Deuterostomes
D. Formation of Body Cavities
1. Acoelomic
2. Pseudocoelomic
3. Schizocoelomic
4. Enterocoelomic
E. Protostome vs. Deuterostome Development
|
|
Protostome
|
Deuterostome |
|
Cleavage pattern
|
spiral |
radial |
|
Developmental fate of early blastomeres
|
mosaic |
regulative |
|
Fate of blastopore
|
Becomes mouth |
Becomes anus |
|
Origin of mesoderm
|
From 4d cell |
From outpouchings of archenteron |
|
Body cavity
|
Acoelomic; Pseudocoelomic; Schizocoelomic |
Enterocoelomic |
IV. Phylogenetic Tree Revisited
Animal Skeletal Systems
(Chap. 29; pp. 630-636)
I. Selective Forces
A. balance between stiffness and strength:
B. weight
C. forces of compression and tension
II. Skeletal Materials
A. connective tissue
B. cartilage
C. Bone
1. structure
2. bone formation
a. cell involved
b. types of bone
c. hormonal regulattion
D. Chitin
III. Skeletal Systems
A. Hydrostatic Skeletons
1. Phylum Cnidaria
a. Polyp
b. Medusa
2. Phylum Nematoda
3. Phylum Annelida
4. Phylum Mollusca
a. hemolymph and sinuses
b. jet propulsion in Cephalopods
5. Phylum Echinodermata:
a. water vascular system
b. tube feet
B. Exoskeleton
1. Protozoa
2. Phylum Cnidaria
3. Phylum Mollusca
4. Phylum Arthorpoda
a. structure of cuticle
b. use of cuticle to generate movement: Ex: flight in insects.
1) structure of thorax segment and wing hinge
2) indirect flight muscles
· dorso-ventral muscles
· dorso-longitudinal muscles
3) direct flight muscles
C. Endoskeleton: skeleton contained within the tissues
1. Porifera
2. Phylum Echinodermata
3. Phylum Chordata
a. notochord
b. vertebrate skeleton
1) axial skeleton
2) appendicular skeleton
3) tendons and ligaments
Movement Generating Mechanisms
(Chap. 29, pp. 636-646)
I. Selective Forces
II. Amoeboid Movement
III. Cilia and Flagella
A. Structure
B. Function: Sliding Microtubule Hypothesis
IV. Muscles
A. Types of Muscle Fibers
1. Striated muscle fibers
a. characteristics
b. functional types
1) slow oxidative fibers
2) fast fibers
· fast glycolytic fibers
· fast oxidative fibers
2. Smooth muscle fibers
3. Cardiac muscle fibers
B. Muscle structure
1. fasiculus
2. muscle fiber
a. sarcolemma
b. sarcoplasmic reticulum
c. T-tubules
3. myofibrils
4. sarcomere
a. Z-lines
b. actin filaments
1) reactive sites
2) tropomyosin
3) troponin
c. myosin filaments with myosin heads
C. Sarcomere contraction: Sliding Filament Hypothesis
D. Energy for contraction
1. ATP
2. mechanisms for replenishing ATP
3. contraction under anaerobic conditions
Animal Nervous Systems
(Chap. 33)
I. Selective Forces
II. Irritability
III. The Neuron
A. Structure:
a. neuron components
b. glial cells
c. neuronal membrane
1) Na+ and K+ channels
2) sodium pump
B. Types
1. sensory (afferent)
2. motor (efferent
3. interneuron
4. relex arc: Ex: reaction to pain (p. 717)
C. Function
1. Neuron at rest
2. Action Potential
D. Speed of conduction
1. axon diameter
2. sheathing
E. Communication Between Neurons: the chemical synapse
1. structure
2. function
3. types of chemical synapses
a. excitatory
b. inhibitory
4. summation of synaptic inputs
5. types of neurotransmitters
6. Neuromuscular junction
III. Types of Nervous Systems
A. Nerve net (plexus
B. Bilateral Nervous Systems: Invertebrates
1. Phylum Platyhelminthes
2. Phylum Annelida
3. Phylum Arthropoda: the insect CNS
a. brain
· protocerebrum
· deuterocerebrum
· tritocerebrum
b. subesophogael ganglion
c. ventral nerve cords
d. segmental ganglia
· thoracic ganglia
· abdominal ganglia
e. hierarchical arrangement of arthropod nervous system
C. Bilateral Nervous Systems: Vertebrates
1. Spinal Cord
2. Brain:
a. hindbrain
1) mylencephalon
· medulla oblongata
2) metencephalon:
· cerebellum: controls equilibrium, posture and movement; is a precision control center; does not initiate movement
· pons: connects two halves of cerebellum and connects medulla and cerebellum to other parts of brain
b. midbrain: optic lobes
c. forebrain:
1) diencephalon
· thalamus
· hypothalamus
2) telencephalon
· olfactory lobes (paleocortex
· cerebrum (neocortex)
3. Peripheral Nervous System:
a. somatic nervous system
b. autonomic nervous sytem
1) parasympathetic system
2) sympathetic system
Animal Sensory Systems
(Chap. 33)
I. Selective Forces
A. biological transducers
B. biological transformers
II. Types of Sensory Receptors
A. Chemoreception
1. Arthropods: trichoid sensillum
2. Mammals
B. Mechanoreception
1. Hearing
a. Insects
1) trichoid sensillum
2) tympanum
b. Vertebrate Ear
1) general structure (p. 728)
2) cochlea and organ of Corti
3) function
2. Balance
a. invertebrates: statocysts
b. vertebrates: labyrinth
1) saccule and utricle
2) semicircular canals
C. Photoreception
1. Simple eyes: Ocelli
2. Image forming eyes
a. Compound eye of arthropods
1) structure of ommatidium
2) function
b. Camera eye of vertebrates:
1) general structure
2) retina
a) rod cells
b) cone cells
3) biological transformers
a) lens
b) tapetum
Chemical Coordination
(Chap. 34)
I. Selective Forces;
II. Hormones: General Characteristics
A. Definition
B. Sources of hormones:
1. endocrine glands
2. exocrine glands
C. Effects of hormones
D. Interaction of Nervous and Endocrine systems
III. Hormones: Mechanisms of Action
A. Receptors
1. Membrane-bound receptors:
2. Nuclear receptors (cytoplasmic receptors)
B. Control of Hormone Secretion
IV. Invertebrate Hormones: Molting and Growth in Insects.
A. review of insect cuticle: epidermis, endocuticle, exocuticle
B. Hormonal regulation of molting:
1. prothoracicotropic hormone
2. ecdysone
3. eclosion hormone
4. bursicon
C. Hormonal regulation of development:
1. ecdyson
2. juvenile hormone
V. Vertebrate Hormones:
A. Central Nervous System regulation of hormones
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary gland
a. anterior pituitary
1) tropic hormones
o thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
o follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
o luteinizing hormone (LH)
2) prolactin
3) growth hormone (GH)
b. posterior pituitary
1) oxytocin:
2) vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone; ADH)
B. Hormones and Vertebrate Reproductive cycles:
1. Two types of reproductive cycles in females:
a. estrous cycle
b. menstrual cycle
2. hormonal regulation of menstrual cycle (see attachment):
C. Hormones and Vertebrate Metabolism
1. Thyroid hormones: triiodothryronin and thyroxine.
2. Adrenal glands:
§ Glucocorticoids
· norepinephrine and epinephrine
· affect water balance (will examine this later)
·
androgens
Hormonal Regulation of Menstrual Cycle
1. hypothalamus releases GnRH (gonadotropic relasing hormone)
2. GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release FHS (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)
3. FSH causes follicle to form in ovary. Follicle is endocrine and produces two hormones
· inhibin: inhibits FSH release by anterior pituitary (negative feedback)
· estrogen: causes the uterine lining to develop
4. after 13-14 days, estrogen reaches a threshold concentration in the blood; causes a surge of LH from anterior pituitary.
5. LH surge causes ovulation and an oocyte is released from the follicle. Oocyte will live for 12 hours; if not fertilized it will disintegrate.
6. ruptured follicle becomes a scar called the corpus luteum, which is a transitory endocrine gland:
· is maintained by LH (note: following the LH surge, LH steadily declines back to baseline levels. Thus, maintenance of the corpus luteum by LH is temporary)
· releases estrogen and progesterone; finishes preparing the uterus
If oocyte is NOT fertilized:
7. LH declines below level necessary to maintain corpus luteum; corpus luteum degenerates.
8. without corpus luteum, estrogen and progesterone decline below the levels necessary to
maintain lining of uterus
9. menstruation
If oocyte IS fertilized:
10. zygote implants in uterine lining and placenta form; placenta is endocrine
11. placenta produces hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin):
· maintains corpus luteum and thus uterine lining is not shed (replaces LH in maintaining corpus luteum)
· placenta begins to produce estrogen and progesterone and maintains uterine lining
· around the 3rd month of pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates
12. birth:
· triggered by a surge in estrogen plus a decline in progesterone
· uterine contractions maintained by oxytocin from posterior pituitary
13. lactation triggered by prolactin from anterior pituitary
Feeding and Digestion
(Chap. 32)
I. Selective Forces
A. ingestion
B. digestion
C. absorption
II. Ingestion (Feed mechanisms)
A. Feeding on Particulate Matter
1. Filter Feeders
a. Sessile filter feeders:
1) Porifera
2) Bivalvia
3) Barnacles
b. Mobile filter feeders:
1) copepods
2) flamingo
3) baleen whales
2. Deposit Feeders
B. Feeding on Food Masses
1. Protozoa
2. Cnidaria
3. Mollusca
4. Crustaceans and Insects
5. Most vertebrates
C. Feeding on Fluids
1. Plant sap feeders
2. Food liquefiers
3. Blood feeders:
a. clotting process:
b. anticoagulants
III. Digestion
A. Site of digestion:
1. intracellular
2. extracellular
3. intracellular and extracellular digestion
B. Mechanical breakdown of food
1. mouthparts
a. radula of mollusks
b. mandibles of arthropods
c. vertebrate teeth
1) homodont dentition
2) heterodont dentition
2. internal grinding devices
a. gizzard
b. gastric mill of crustaceans
C. Chemical breakdown of food: digestive enzymes
1. Hydrolysis:
R-R + H2O digestive enzymeà R-OH + H-R
2. Chemical digestion in higher vertebrates
|
Source of Enzymes |
Secretions and Enzymes |
Function |
|
Salivary glands |
Salivary amylase |
Converts starch into maltose |
|
Stomach |
· HCl
· pepsin (secreted as pepsinogen) |
· creates acidic environment for protein digestion · breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides · results in chyme, which moves into dueodenum |
|
Duodenum of small intestines |
1. for digestion of carbohydrates · pancreatic amylase
2. for digestion of proteins · trypsin · chymotrypsin · carboxypeptidase
3. for digestion of lipids · bile · pancreatic lipase |
· starch à maltose
· polypeptides à amino acids
· from liver; emulsifies fats and oils · breaks down fats and oils |
3. Hormonal regulation of digestive enzymes
a. gastrin
b. cholecystokinin (CCK)
c. secretin
4. Chemical digestion in herbivores
IV. Absorption
A. Incomplete gut
B. Complete gut
1. typhlosole of annelids
2. digestive glands of arthropods
3. vertebrate small intestines: villi and microvilli
Homeostatis and Water Balance
(Chap. 30)
I. Selective Forces
A. Osmoregulation
B. Elimination of nitrogenous wastes
II. Osmoregulation
A. Terminology
1. osmotic pressure
2. isosmotic
3. hyperosmotic
4. hypoosmotic
5. osmoconformer
6. osmoregulator
B. Osmoregulation in Marine Environments
1. Estuarine invertebrates
2. Chondrichthyes
3. Marine Osteichthyes
C. Osmoregulation in Freshwater Environments
D. Osmoregulation Terrestrial Environments
III. Elimination of Nitrogenous Wastes
A. Source of nitrogenous wastes
B. Forms of nitrogenous wastes
1. ammonia
2. urea
3. uric acid
4. guanine
IV. Excretory and Osmoregulatory Mechanisms
A. Contractile vacuoles
B. Body surface
C. Excretory organs
1. Protonephridia of Platyhelminthes
a. structure
b. function
2. Metanephridia of Annelids
a. structure
b. function
3. Malpighian tubule/Hindgut system of Insects
a. structure
b. function
1) filtration
2) reabsorbtion and secretion
3) hormonal regulation
· diuretic hormone
· antidiuretic hormone
· proctolin
4. Vertebrate Kidney
a. general structure
b. structure of nephron
c. function of nephron
1) filtration
2) tubular reabsorbtion
3) tubular secretion
4) water balance and formation of concentrated urine
a) ascending limb of Loop of Henle
b) descending limb of Loop of Henle
c) collecting duct
d. hormonal control of nephron
1) ADH
2) Juxtaglomerular appartus
· rennin
· angiotensin
o aldosterone
o ADH
o blood pressure
o thirst
Gas Exchange and Respiration
(Chap. 31)
I. Selective Forces:
A. Problems associated with diffusion:
1. expose moist body surface
2. Limitations to diffusion
a. surface area
b. partial pressure of gas
c. surface/volume ratio
B. General mechanisms for increasing uptake of oxygen
1. countercurrent exchange systems
a. concurrent exchange
b. counter current exchang3
2. respiratory pigments
a. Types
1) hemocyanin
2) hemoglobin
3) myoglobin
b. Factors affecting hemoglobin affinity for O2
1) partial pressure of O2
2) cooperativity
3) pH
II. Respiration in Aquatic Envrionments:
A. The environment
B. Respiratory mechanisms
1. Body surface
2. Molluscs
3. Crustaceans: gills and gill bailer
4. Echinoderms: dermal branchia
5. Fish gills
III. Respiration in Terrestrial Environment
A. The environment
B. Respiratory mechanisms
1. diffusion across body surface
2. Modified gills of crustaceans: pill bugs (Isopods)
3. Trachea
a. structure
b. function
c. ventilation
4. Lungs
a. diffusion lungs
-- Pulmonate snails
-- book lungs of arachnids
b. ventilation lungs: mammals
1) structure
2) ventilation
· inhalation
· exhalation
3) regulation of breathing
c. ventilation lungs: birds
1) structure
2) air flow
· inhalation 1
· exhalation 1
· inhalation 2
· exhalation 2
Body Fluids and Circulatory Systems
(Chap. 31)
I. Selective Forces
II. Circulatory Mechanisms
A. Circulation without circulatory system
1. Protozoa
2. Porifera
3. Circulation via gastrovascular cavity
a. Cnidaria
b. Platyhelminthes
4. Circulation via coelom
a. Nematoda
b. Echinoderms
B. Circulation with an open circulatory system
1. Characteristics of open system:
2. Molluscs
3. Insects
C. Circulation with a closed circulatory system: Invertebrates
1. characteristics
2. Annelids
3. Cephalopods:
a. branchial circuit
b. systemic circuit
D. Circulation with closed system: Vertebrates
1. arteries and veins
2. evolution of vertebrate circulatory system:
3. Osteichthyes
a. structure
b. blood flow
4. Reptiles
a. structure:
b. blood flow
pulmonary circuit
systemic circuit
c. comparison of fish and reptilian system:
|
Fish |
Reptile
|
|
One-way flow |
Two circuit flow |
|
2 chambered heart |
3 chambered heart with incomplete septum |
|
Bulbous arteriosus |
Pulmonary artery, 2 systemic arches |
|
Sinus venosus |
Sinatrial node (pace maker) |
d. function of incomplete septum:
1) hibernation
2) diving
5. Mammals and Birds
a. structure
b. blood flow:
pulmonary circuit
systemic circuit
c. comparison of reptilian and mammalian system
|
Reptile |
Mammal and Birds
|
|
Two circuit flow |
Two circuit flow |
|
3 chambered heart with incomplete septum |
4 chambered heart with complete septum |
|
Pulmonary artery; 2 systemic arches |
Pulmonary artery, aortic arch |
|
Sinatrial node (pace maker) |
Sinatrial node (pace maker) |
d. regulation of heart beat and blood pressure
1) rhythmicity of heart beat
2) blood pressure
Immunity (Chap. 35)
I. Selective Forces
II. Types of Immunity
A. Acquired immunity
1. humoral immune response
2. cell mediated immune response
B. Innate immunity
III. Cells of the Immune System
A. Phagocytes
1. function
2. macrophages
a. mononuclear phagocyte system
b. polymorphonuclear leukocytes
B. Leukocytes
1. B cells
a. plasma cells
b. memory B cells
2. T cells
a. T helper cells
b. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes
c. T-suppressor cells
d. T-memory cells
C. Mast cells
D. Natural Killer cells
IV. Complement
A. classical pathway
B. alternate pathway
V. Basis of Self/Non-self Recognition
A. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
B. Types of MHC proteins
1. MHC class I
2. MHC class II
VI. Recognition Molecules
A. antibodies (Ab)
1. structure
2. function
B. T-cell receptors
1. structure
2. function
VII. Acquired immune response
A. Humoral immune response
B. Cell mediated immune response
C. Inflammation
1. Delayed type hypersensitivity
2. Immediate hypersensitivity
VIII. Innate immune response
A. Physical barriers
B. Chemical barriers