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Phylum and Class Characteristics

I. Phylum Arthropoda

II. Subphylum Uniramia

III. Class Insecta

Survey of Insect Taxa

I. Apterygota

A. Order Collembola

B. Order Thysanura

II. Pterygota

A. Exopterygota

1. Paleopterous exopterygota

a. Order Odonata

b. Order Ephemeroptera

2. Neopterous exopterygota

a. Orthopteroid Orders

1) Order Plecoptera

2) Order Phasmida

3) Order Orthoptera

4) Order Dermaptera

5) Order Isoptera

6) Order Blattaria

7) Order Mantodea

b. Hemipteroid Orders

1) Order Mallophaga

2) Order Anoplura

3) Order Thysanoptera

4) Order Hemiptera

5) Order Homoptera

B. Endopterygota

1. Order Coleoptera

2. Order Neuroptera

3. Order Mecoptera

4. Order Diptera

5. Order Siphonaptera

6. Order Trichoptera

7. Order Lepidoptera

8. Order Hymenoptera

Integumentary and Skeletal Systems

I. Structure of Integument

A. Layers

1. basement membrane

2. epidermis

3. cuticle

a. layers of cuticle

1) endocuticle

a) light bands

b) dark bands

2) exocuticle

3) epicuticle

b. chemical composition

1) chitin

2) proteins

3) phenols and quinones

B. External Integumentary Processes

1. spines

2. setae

C. Molting and Growth

1. hormonal regulation of molting

2. growth and development

II. Insect Skeleton

A. Head

1. cranium

2. sensory structures

a. compound eyes

b. ocelli

c. antennae

3. mouthparts

a. generalized plan

1) labrum

2) mandibles

3) hypopharynx

4) maxillae

5) labium

b. feeding types

1) mandibulate

2) haustellate

a) external fluid feeders

b) internal fluid feeders

3) mouthparts of immature stages

B. Thorax

1. Structure

a. generalized thoracic segment

1) tergum

2) pleuron

3) sternum

b. pronotum

2. Legs

a. generalized structure

b. modifications

3. Wings

a. generalized structure

b. wing coupling devices

c. modifications

C. Abdomen

1. generalized structure

2. external genitalia

a. female

b. male

3. abdominal appendages

Nervous System

I. The Neuron

A. Structure

1. structural types

2. functional types

3. reflex arc

B. Function

1. neuron at rest

2. action potential

3. speed of conduction

C. Synapse

1. structure and function

2. neurotransmitters

II. Central Nervous System

A. Brain

1. Protocerebrum

a. optic lobes

b. ocellar nerves

c. pars intercerebralis, corpora cardiaca and corpora allata

d. central body and protocerebral bridge

e. corpora pedunculata

2. Deuterocerebrum

3. Tritocerebrum

a. circumesophogoel connectives

b. frontal ganglia

c. recurrent nerve

B. Subesophogoel Ganglian

C. Thorasic Ganglia

D. Abdominal Ganglia

III. Visceral Nervous System (Sympathetic nervous system)

A. Stomatogastric nervous system

B. Ventral visceral system

C. Caudal visceral system

IV. Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory Systems

I. The Sensillum

A. Basic structure

B. Function

1. transduction

2. recognize relevant stimuli

3. sensitivity

C. Types

1. trichoid sensillum

2. basiconic sensillum

3. campaniform sensillum

4. placoid sensillum

5. coeloconic sensillum

6. chordonotal organ

II. Mechanoreception

A. Sense of touch

B. Proprioceptive sense

1. hair plates

2. campaniform sensillum

3. chordonotal organs

C. Phonoreception

1. sound detecting sensilla

a. chordonotal organs

1) tympanic membranes

2) subgenual organs

3) Johnston's organ

b. trichoid sensilla

2. sound production

a. byproducts of activity

b. contracting wing muscles without flight

c. impacting body on substrate

d. special sound producing structures

1) stridulation

2) tymbal mechanisms

III. Photoreception

A. Light detection

1. Compound eye

a. structure of the ommatidium

1) corneal lens

2) crystalline cone

3) corneal pigment cells

4) retinular cells

5) rhabdome

6) secondary pigment cells

7) basement membrane

b. functional types of ommatidia

1) apposition type

2) superposition type

c. color vision

2. Ocelli

a. stemmata

b. dorsal ocelli

B. Light Production

1. mechanism

2. use

IV. Chemoreception

A. Olfaction

1. sensilla involved

2. sensitivity

B. Gustation

1. sensilla involved

2. function

a. feeding

b. oviposition

Locomotion

I. Walking and Running

A. Leg articulations

B. Nervous coordination

1. Basic rhythmical pattern: central pattern generator

2. Modification of CPG by sensory feedback

3. Central nervous system control of CPG

II. Jumping

A. Modified hindlegs

B. Furcula of springtails

C. Cuticular elasticity

III. Aquatic Locomotion

A. Surface locomotion

B. Subsurface locomotion

1. appendages for swimming

2. jet propulsion

IV. Flight

A. Mechanisms for flight

1. indirect flight muscles

2. direct flight muscles

3. cuticular elasticity: click mechanism

B. Sensory regulation of flight

1. initiation of flight

2. regulation during flight

a. control of flight speed

1) hairs and bristles

2) Johnston's organ

3) compound eyes

b. adjustments during flight

1) campaniform sensilla

2) chordonotal organs

3) halteres of dipterans

4) hair plates of Odonates

C. Evolutionary trends in flight

Digestion

I. Alimentary System

A. Foregut

1. mouth

2. pharynx

3. esophagus

4. crop

5. proventriculus

6. stomadael valve

7. salivary glands

B. Midgut

1. structure

a. gastric caeca

b. ventriculus

c. midgut epithelium

d. peritrophic membrane

2. digestion

a. functions of the peritrophic membrane

1) compartmentalization of the midgut

2) maintenance of a countercurrent flow of fluids

3) barrier to pathogens

b. microvilli

c. enzymes

3. absorption

a. food types

b. mechanisms for absorption

1) maintenance of concentration gradients

2) active transport of Na+

C. Hindgut

1. structure

a. pylorus

b. malpighian tubules

c. intestines

d. rectum

e. anus

2. functions

II. Regulation of Digestion

A. Nervous control

B. Hormonal control

III. Specialized Feeding Niches

A. Phytophagus insects

1. plant toxins

2. plant fluid feeders

B. Hematophagus insects

C. Wood feeders

Circulatory System

I. Structure

A. Dorsal vessel

1. heart

2. aorta

B. Diaphragms and sinuses

1. dorsal diaphragm

2. ventral diaphragm

II. Hemolymph

A. Composition

1. water

2. ions

3. nitrogenous wastes

4. carbohydrates

a. trehalose

b. glycoporteins

c. antifreezes

5. lipids

6. amino acids

B. Functions

1. hydraulic medium

2. storage

III. Hematocytes

IV. Immune System

A. Recognition of self

B. Components of immune response

1. non-cellular

a. inducible

b. non-inducible

2. cellular

a. wound healing

b. phagocytosis

c. nodule formation

d. encapsulation

V. Nephrocytes

VI. Fat Body

Ventilatory System

I. Structure

A. Spiracles

1. Types of spiracles

2. Types of tracheal systems

B. Trachea

C. Tracheoles

D. Air sacs

II. Ventilatory Processes

A. Passive ventilation

B. Passive suction ventilation

C. Active ventilation

III. Aquatic ventilation

Excretory System

I. Structure

A. Malpighian tubules

B. Rectal glands

II. Function

A. Nitrogenous wastes

1. amonotelic

2. uricotelic

B. Excretion and water balance

1. malpighian tubule/rectal gland complex

2. hormonal regulation

a. diuretic hormone

b. antidiuretic hormone

c. proctolin

Reproductive System

I. Male Reproductive System

A. Structures

1. testes with testicular follicles

2. vas deferens

3. seminal vesicle

4. ejaculatory duct

5. acessory glands

B. Spermatogenesis

1. germarium: spermatogonia

2. zone of growth: spermatocytes

3. zone of maturation and reduction: spermatids

4. zone of transformation: spermatozoa

C. Spermatophores

II. Female Reproductive System

A. Structures

1. ovaries with ovarioles

2. lateral oviduct; common oviduct

3. bursa copulatrix

4. spermatheca

5. accessory glands

B. Oogenesis

1. germarium

2. vitellarium

a. follicle

b. yolk

c. types of ovarioles and yolk uptake

1) panoistic

2) telotrophic

3) polytrophic

3. egg (ovum)

4. control of oogenesis and vitellogenesis

a. neurosecretions from pars intercerebralis

b. JH

c. ecdysone

d. example: mosquito

C. Oviposition

1. types

a. oviparous

b. viviparous

c. ovoviviparous

2. ovipositor

III. Sex Determination

A. Hermaphroditism

B. Separate Sexes

Development

I. Embryogenesis

A. Blastoderm and germ cell formation

B. Germ Band and germ layer formation

1. germ band

2. germ layers

C. Segmentation

D. Organogenesis

1. mesoderm

2. endoderm

3. ectoderm

E. Genetic control of embryogenesis

1. maternal effect genes

2. segmentation genes

3. homeotic genes

II. Post-embryonic Development

A. Metamorphosis

1. Hemimetabolous

2. Holometabolous

a. larval stage

1) characteristics

2) types

b. pupal stage

1) characteristics

2) types

c. histological changes during development

3. Hormonal control of molting and metamorphosis (see earlier notes)

B. Diapause

Insect Behavior

I. Types of Behavior

A. Innate

1. reflex

2. orientation

a. taxis

b. compass orientation

1) sun compass

2) polarized light compass

3) magnetic compass

3. fixed action pattern

a. sign stimulus

b. sequences of fixed action patterns

B. Learned

1. associative learning

2. landmark learning

3. timing of learning

II. Periodicity of Behavior

A. Terminology

B. Examples

1. cricket singing

2. eclosion in silk moths

C. Clock mechanism

III. Control of Behavior

A. General information

B. Nervous control

1. stimulus filtering

2. generating a response

3. decision making

a. feeding in the blowfly

b. evasion of bats by noctuid moths

C. Hormonal regulation

1. modifier effects

a. biting in female mosquitos

b. division of labor in honey bees

2. releaser effects

D. Genetic control

1. single gene effects

a. hygenic behavior in honey bees

b. "per" mutant of Drosophila

2. polygenic effects

a. selection experiments

b. hybrid experiments

IV. Communication

A. Definition

B. Channels of Communication

1. tactile

2. auditory

a. air-borne sound

b. substrate-borne sound

3. visual

4. chemical

a. types

b. structure of pheromones

V. Biological Categories of Behavior

A. Foraging Behavior

1. finding and recognizing food

2. foraging "rules"

3. tool use in foraging

B. Escape and Defense Behavior

1. camoflague and mimicry

2. chemical defense

a. repugnatorial substances

b. alarm pheromones

c. venoms

C. Migration

1. adaptive significance

2. regulation

D. Reproductive Behavior

1. male-male competition

a. mechanisms of aggression

b. alternate male mating strategies

2. mate choice (female mate choice)

a. choice based on genetic quality

b. choice based on material benefits

3. brood care

a. female only

b. male and female care

E. Social Behavior (the social insects)

1. terminology

2. evolution of eusociality

a. factors favoring the evolution of eusociality

b. evolutionary routes

3. caste and division of labor

Insects of Medical Importance

I. O. Anoplura

A. Pediculus humanus capitus

B. P. h. humanus

1. epidemic typhus: Richettsia prowazekii

2. relapsing fever: Borrelia

C. Phthirus pubis

II. O. Hemiptera: Triatoma and Rhodnius: Chagus disease (Trypanosoma cruzi)

III. O. Siphonaptera

A. Ctenocephalides: dog and cat tapeworm

B. Xenopsylla cheopis: plague (Yersinia pestis)

1. types of plague

2. plague and human history

IV. O. Diptera

A. mosquitos

1. Anopheles: malaria (Plasmodium)

a. P. vivax

b. P. falciparum

2. Culex:

a. Wucheraria bancrofti: elephantiasis

b. Dirofilaria immitis: dog heart worm

B. biting flies

1. Glossinia: African sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma brucei)

2. Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia: Leishmaniasis (Leishmania)

C. flies that cause myiasis

1. Cochliomyia: screw worm

2. bot flies and cattle grubs